Question: What kind of present would you get for a history major?
Best Answer - Chosen by Asker
In my opinion there are five essentials for the study of history at a higher (or any?) level. These are listed below. Of course some of these resources can now be found online, but books make for a special (and portable) gift that implies some thought on the part of the giver. And not all internet sources are reliable!
1. A good dictionary. Students will come across many unfamiliar words and terms, especially in the more specialized areas of historical study. Dictionaries vary considerably in coverage and price, but the edition below is a good compromise and includes 12 months' access to Oxford's premium online dictionary and thesaurus service, ‘Oxford Dictionaries Online’, updated regularly with the latest developments to words and meanings.
The Concise Oxford English Dictionary
2. Comparative chronological tables. Too often historical subjects are so tightly focused that students are left unaware of the full contemporary picture. Chronological tables allow students to relate their subject to other world events and to a wider timeframe, and provide an opportunity to discover or consider causal linkages that may be beyond the scope of the syllabus. My well-thumbed standby is the Hutchinson series, which is categorized usefully into broad historical epochs.
The Hutchinson Chronology of World History
1. Prehistory-1491 AD: The Ancient & Medieval World
2. 1492-1775: The Expanding World
3. 1776-1900: The Changing World
4. 1901-Present Day: The Modern World
3. A good encyclopedia. Always a useful quick reference work and a more detailed complement to a dictionary. And a print title may often be more reliable than some well known internet resources! Again, my well used standby is from Hutchinson. The 2005 edition should soon be available from Amazon. Click on the title to be informed when the title is in stock.
The Hutchinson Encyclopedia 2005
4. A current world Geographical Atlas. Geography is one of the key determinants of history. Climate, topography, geology, political and economic factors are frequently at the core of historical causation. Times Books is a well known publisher of good quality Atlases. Two differently priced options are given here.
The Times Universal Atlas of the World
The Times Comprehensive Atlas of the World
5. A recent Historical Atlas of the region(s) being studied. Useful source for the distribution and movements of peoples and for changes in political boundaries over time. An Historical Atlas will help avoid confusion of geographical with political entities – as, for example, Greece, Germany and Italy, which had long been recognised as geographical definitions, did not achieve political unity and statehood until the 19th Century. My own ‘Times Atlas of European History’ has very useful marginal notes covering the major events that led to changes to the European map. Unfortunately this seems to be out of stock on Amazon, but follow the link for used copies from Amazon-approved sellers.
The Times Atlas of European History
There is also a huge range of history titles on the main History Unlimited web site.
Sunday 29 August 2010
Saturday 28 August 2010
History of Archaeology
Question: Where did archaeology originate?
Best Answer – Chosen by Voters
Interesting question.
Early archaeological endeavours were prompted by curiosity or treasure seeking, without the benefits of scientific method. It could be argued that in Europe the first impulse towards methodical historical exploration came with the Italian Renaissance, which saw a revived interest in the texts and artifacts of the Classical past and produced a neo-classical revival in the arts and architecture. The early 15th Century scholar Ciriaco Pizzecolli (1391-1453) recorded his findings on ancient artifacts and buildings during his travels around the Mediterranean and is sometimes known as the ‘father of archaeology’.
The influence of the Renaissance spread to other parts of Europe, and with it the awakening of scientific curiosity and fascination with the past. In England, for example, interest in ancient sites had been in evidence at least as far back as the Middle Ages, quite often in association with local myth and legend. But in the 16th Century a new spirit of scientific enquiry was personified in such eminent polymaths as Dr John Dee (1527-1608) and Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626). Within the limits of existing knowledge and technology the ground had been laid for a methodical approach to archaeology.
The iconic site of Stonehenge figures largely in early explorations, with excavations carried out in the early 1600s by the discoverer of the circulation of the blood, Dr William Harvey (1578-1657) and the architect Inigo Jones (1573-1652). The English antiquarian and writer John Aubrey (1626-1697), who left an unfinished two volume collection of ‘Wiltshire Antiquities’, was one of the first to produce a plan of Stonehenge, in 1666, and discovered and named the ‘Aubrey Holes’. Interest in Stonehenge and the surrounding sites continued, but the most prominent figure was William Stukeley (1687-1765) who conducted serious fieldwork at Stonehenge, producing his first detailed plans in an unpublished manuscript of 1724 and his principal accounts of Stonehenge and Avebury in 1740-1743. His 1724 manuscript has recently been published in a facsimile edition: ‘Stukeley's Stonehenge, 1721-1724’ edited by Aubrey Burl and Neil Mortimer.
By the middle of the 18th Century, on the cusp of the Enlightenment, similar investigations into the prehistoric past were under way elsewhere in the UK, mostly by enthusiastic amateurs. In many cases the mutilation of archaeological sites far outweighed the knowledge gained. But it has to be acknowledged that such early excavations were, perhaps, a necessary first step towards the development of the discipline. At the same time, and less usefully, prehistoric sites provided a blank sheet for fantastic speculation that confused time periods or served to buttress the wishful thinking of fervid imaginations. Even today, prehistory seems to be regarded as fair game for plausible constructs, unsupported by hard evidence!
The 19th Century saw the beginnings of the modern scientific approach to historical and archaeological research, not least through the work of German scholars. Even so, archaeological method was still in its infancy and amateurs outnumbered the practitioners of an emerging profession. But it was mainly these amateurs, often accomplished self-publicists, who created the momentum for what followed through romantic accounts of adventure and discovery. Most notable was Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890) who, with ‘a copy of Homer in one hand and a spade in the other’ claimed discovery of Troy at a site that had been under excavation by the British archaeologist Frank Calvert for some 20 years. Schliemann went on to excavate at Mycenae, discovering among other things a magnificent gold ‘Mask of Agamemnon’. Some of Schliemann’s claims were not particularly well founded and he left damage enough to make subsequent archaeology problematic, but his work captured the imagination of the world and stimulated new generations of archaeologists. After Schliemann, archaeology entered its high period which has continued down to the present day.
This is, necessarily, a very brief summary of the development of archaeology. For more on 19th and early 20th Century archaeology you might like to follow up on Henry Rawlinson, Austen Henry Layard and Leonard Woolley in the context of Mesopotomia; Howard Carter (the tomb of Tutankhamen), and Flinders Petrie in Egypt; and Arthur Evans, who excavated the ‘Palace of Minos’ at Knossos. A range of relevant titles is available from the Ancient World and Prehistory pages of the History Unlimited Bookshop.
My personal interest in archaeology was stimulated by two books which I was fortunate enough to stumble across in my youth. The first was ‘Gods, Graves and Scholars’ by CW Ceram, which has classic accounts of some of the most important digs in the history of archaeology. The second was ‘Voices in Stone’ by Ernst Doblhofer, which is an equally fascinating account of the decipherment of ancient texts and languages.
Best Answer – Chosen by Voters
Interesting question.
Early archaeological endeavours were prompted by curiosity or treasure seeking, without the benefits of scientific method. It could be argued that in Europe the first impulse towards methodical historical exploration came with the Italian Renaissance, which saw a revived interest in the texts and artifacts of the Classical past and produced a neo-classical revival in the arts and architecture. The early 15th Century scholar Ciriaco Pizzecolli (1391-1453) recorded his findings on ancient artifacts and buildings during his travels around the Mediterranean and is sometimes known as the ‘father of archaeology’.
The influence of the Renaissance spread to other parts of Europe, and with it the awakening of scientific curiosity and fascination with the past. In England, for example, interest in ancient sites had been in evidence at least as far back as the Middle Ages, quite often in association with local myth and legend. But in the 16th Century a new spirit of scientific enquiry was personified in such eminent polymaths as Dr John Dee (1527-1608) and Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626). Within the limits of existing knowledge and technology the ground had been laid for a methodical approach to archaeology.
The iconic site of Stonehenge figures largely in early explorations, with excavations carried out in the early 1600s by the discoverer of the circulation of the blood, Dr William Harvey (1578-1657) and the architect Inigo Jones (1573-1652). The English antiquarian and writer John Aubrey (1626-1697), who left an unfinished two volume collection of ‘Wiltshire Antiquities’, was one of the first to produce a plan of Stonehenge, in 1666, and discovered and named the ‘Aubrey Holes’. Interest in Stonehenge and the surrounding sites continued, but the most prominent figure was William Stukeley (1687-1765) who conducted serious fieldwork at Stonehenge, producing his first detailed plans in an unpublished manuscript of 1724 and his principal accounts of Stonehenge and Avebury in 1740-1743. His 1724 manuscript has recently been published in a facsimile edition: ‘Stukeley's Stonehenge, 1721-1724’ edited by Aubrey Burl and Neil Mortimer.
By the middle of the 18th Century, on the cusp of the Enlightenment, similar investigations into the prehistoric past were under way elsewhere in the UK, mostly by enthusiastic amateurs. In many cases the mutilation of archaeological sites far outweighed the knowledge gained. But it has to be acknowledged that such early excavations were, perhaps, a necessary first step towards the development of the discipline. At the same time, and less usefully, prehistoric sites provided a blank sheet for fantastic speculation that confused time periods or served to buttress the wishful thinking of fervid imaginations. Even today, prehistory seems to be regarded as fair game for plausible constructs, unsupported by hard evidence!
The 19th Century saw the beginnings of the modern scientific approach to historical and archaeological research, not least through the work of German scholars. Even so, archaeological method was still in its infancy and amateurs outnumbered the practitioners of an emerging profession. But it was mainly these amateurs, often accomplished self-publicists, who created the momentum for what followed through romantic accounts of adventure and discovery. Most notable was Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890) who, with ‘a copy of Homer in one hand and a spade in the other’ claimed discovery of Troy at a site that had been under excavation by the British archaeologist Frank Calvert for some 20 years. Schliemann went on to excavate at Mycenae, discovering among other things a magnificent gold ‘Mask of Agamemnon’. Some of Schliemann’s claims were not particularly well founded and he left damage enough to make subsequent archaeology problematic, but his work captured the imagination of the world and stimulated new generations of archaeologists. After Schliemann, archaeology entered its high period which has continued down to the present day.
This is, necessarily, a very brief summary of the development of archaeology. For more on 19th and early 20th Century archaeology you might like to follow up on Henry Rawlinson, Austen Henry Layard and Leonard Woolley in the context of Mesopotomia; Howard Carter (the tomb of Tutankhamen), and Flinders Petrie in Egypt; and Arthur Evans, who excavated the ‘Palace of Minos’ at Knossos. A range of relevant titles is available from the Ancient World and Prehistory pages of the History Unlimited Bookshop.
My personal interest in archaeology was stimulated by two books which I was fortunate enough to stumble across in my youth. The first was ‘Gods, Graves and Scholars’ by CW Ceram, which has classic accounts of some of the most important digs in the history of archaeology. The second was ‘Voices in Stone’ by Ernst Doblhofer, which is an equally fascinating account of the decipherment of ancient texts and languages.
Friday 27 August 2010
A History of History
Question: Are historians of ancient history more honest and unbiased than the historians of modern history?
Best Answer - Chosen by Asker
Narrative and analytical history (as opposed to simple chronicles) has been written for different reasons at different times. Although it is dangerous to generalise, you might like to consider the following.
The father of Western European history was the Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484 BCe – c. 425 BCe). Herodotus regarded history as a source of moral teaching and included a number of moralising diversions in his 'Histories' of the Persian Wars. Although his immediate successor as an historian, Thucydides (c 460 BCe - c 395BCe), introduced a much more scientific approach to the writing of history in his 'Peloponnesian Wars', a good number of (mainly Roman) classical historians perpetuated the tradition of drawing moral lessons from history and their writing was skewed to this purpose. Most often the intention was to draw unfavourable comparisons between the Rome of their day and the glory of an earlier time; but there were also Roman and Greek writers whose recording of contemporary or near contemporary events were designed to promote political or personal agendas (or both!). So that the distortion of history has existed from the earliest times.
By the time of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE, Europe consisted mainly of barbarian enclaves (during the so-called Dark Ages) that left the fringes of Empire seperated from Rome. Christianity, sometimes in heretical form and already established in some barbarian tribes, endured. And in the far west the surviving monasteries of Wales, Ireland and Brittany served as a conduit that preserved and transmitted traditions of scholarship and memories of a civilised past via Scotland and northern England to a mainland Europe that was being Christianised and restored from the south. History became the business of the Church, and the Church the business of history.
But scholarship was perverted into a sterile scholasticism that lacked curiosity, intellectual rigour and dynamism. In the 7th Century, as the great population movements subsided, an increasingly powerful papacy reached out across the barbarian divide to the remote Christian communities in the west. A united Church imposed its orthodoxy on pagan or heterodox enclaves and provided the institutional framework for a re-invented Empire, soon to be dubbed Holy Roman. Henceforward the Church was to assume a monopoly of learning, based for the most part on scholasticism and with the aim of creating a literate and educated clergy capable of promoting and justifying dogma.
There were occasional departures into pseudo-history in the Middle Ages, for example in Norman England, where native legends and foundation myths were commandeered by a new and alien elite in order to claim some kind of legitimacy. And the Rennaissance generated a new fascination with the classical past and a new understanding of scientific process.
But it was not until the Enlightenment of the 18th / 19th Centuries that historians began to attempt an objective approach, although not untinged with philosophical speculation. Edward Gibbon's 'The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire' was the first major milestone of modern historiography. The 19th Century saw the emergence of a truly scientific approach to history, especially in Germany; but here and elsewhere history was sometimes used to further nationalistic and chauvinist agendas.
1848, the ‘Year of Revolutions’, had brought pressure to bear in many quarters. The century had seen the growth of separatism, triggered by maladministration and corruption, in the quest for self-determination and democracy and in some cases with the added ingredient of socialist political theory. New nation states were created, and emerging nationalist movements proliferated through the propaganda of aspiring political classes and by the usual methods: the distortion and re-invention of history, the stimulation of patriotic fervour without regard to historical political geography, the creation of folkish ‘heritage’, the fomentation of ancient grudges, the incitement of hatred towards neighbours.
The use of history as a propaganda tool persists on the outer fringes of Western writing and even more so in regions of the globe where political conflicts or the clash of ideologies are current. And, more generally:
All important historical writing is revisionist and subjective (however much the historians think otherwise), and all writers, whatever their period, will choose their own points of focus. The wider the reading, the more the reader will be exposed to differing perspectives and opinions, and the better will he/she be able to form their own view of whatever passes for historical reality.
A recent (2007) and absorbing account of the development of historiography is ‘A History of Histories’ by John Burrow. Purchase from Amazon here, or go to History Unlimited for a detailed review and entry to the web site.
Best Answer - Chosen by Asker
Narrative and analytical history (as opposed to simple chronicles) has been written for different reasons at different times. Although it is dangerous to generalise, you might like to consider the following.
The father of Western European history was the Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484 BCe – c. 425 BCe). Herodotus regarded history as a source of moral teaching and included a number of moralising diversions in his 'Histories' of the Persian Wars. Although his immediate successor as an historian, Thucydides (c 460 BCe - c 395BCe), introduced a much more scientific approach to the writing of history in his 'Peloponnesian Wars', a good number of (mainly Roman) classical historians perpetuated the tradition of drawing moral lessons from history and their writing was skewed to this purpose. Most often the intention was to draw unfavourable comparisons between the Rome of their day and the glory of an earlier time; but there were also Roman and Greek writers whose recording of contemporary or near contemporary events were designed to promote political or personal agendas (or both!). So that the distortion of history has existed from the earliest times.
By the time of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE, Europe consisted mainly of barbarian enclaves (during the so-called Dark Ages) that left the fringes of Empire seperated from Rome. Christianity, sometimes in heretical form and already established in some barbarian tribes, endured. And in the far west the surviving monasteries of Wales, Ireland and Brittany served as a conduit that preserved and transmitted traditions of scholarship and memories of a civilised past via Scotland and northern England to a mainland Europe that was being Christianised and restored from the south. History became the business of the Church, and the Church the business of history.
But scholarship was perverted into a sterile scholasticism that lacked curiosity, intellectual rigour and dynamism. In the 7th Century, as the great population movements subsided, an increasingly powerful papacy reached out across the barbarian divide to the remote Christian communities in the west. A united Church imposed its orthodoxy on pagan or heterodox enclaves and provided the institutional framework for a re-invented Empire, soon to be dubbed Holy Roman. Henceforward the Church was to assume a monopoly of learning, based for the most part on scholasticism and with the aim of creating a literate and educated clergy capable of promoting and justifying dogma.
There were occasional departures into pseudo-history in the Middle Ages, for example in Norman England, where native legends and foundation myths were commandeered by a new and alien elite in order to claim some kind of legitimacy. And the Rennaissance generated a new fascination with the classical past and a new understanding of scientific process.
But it was not until the Enlightenment of the 18th / 19th Centuries that historians began to attempt an objective approach, although not untinged with philosophical speculation. Edward Gibbon's 'The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire' was the first major milestone of modern historiography. The 19th Century saw the emergence of a truly scientific approach to history, especially in Germany; but here and elsewhere history was sometimes used to further nationalistic and chauvinist agendas.
1848, the ‘Year of Revolutions’, had brought pressure to bear in many quarters. The century had seen the growth of separatism, triggered by maladministration and corruption, in the quest for self-determination and democracy and in some cases with the added ingredient of socialist political theory. New nation states were created, and emerging nationalist movements proliferated through the propaganda of aspiring political classes and by the usual methods: the distortion and re-invention of history, the stimulation of patriotic fervour without regard to historical political geography, the creation of folkish ‘heritage’, the fomentation of ancient grudges, the incitement of hatred towards neighbours.
The use of history as a propaganda tool persists on the outer fringes of Western writing and even more so in regions of the globe where political conflicts or the clash of ideologies are current. And, more generally:
All important historical writing is revisionist and subjective (however much the historians think otherwise), and all writers, whatever their period, will choose their own points of focus. The wider the reading, the more the reader will be exposed to differing perspectives and opinions, and the better will he/she be able to form their own view of whatever passes for historical reality.
A recent (2007) and absorbing account of the development of historiography is ‘A History of Histories’ by John Burrow. Purchase from Amazon here, or go to History Unlimited for a detailed review and entry to the web site.
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